Constantine the Great, also known as Constantine I, was a transformative figure in the Roman Empire and in Roman history. Constantine I’s personal journey was influenced by his political ambitions that intersected with religious upheavals of his life—born in 272 CE to his father Flavius Constantius, who was a Roman general, and mother Helena, who would later influence his life by her embracing of Christianity. The early life of Constantine would set the foundations for his future role as a unifier of the Roman Empire. During a time of intense instability within the Roman Empire, he rose to power. By the early fourth century, the Roman Empire was deeply divided in political and religious aspects. Among the most pressing issues of the time was the persecution of Christians, which had reached its height under Emperor Diocletian’s rule. Christians were facing imprisonment, torture, and death for their faith and the persecution had become a massive destabilizing force within the empire. ¹

With Constantine ascending the political ladder, the Roman Empire continued to remain a religiously diverse society. The pagan practices continued to be deeply ingrained within the culture, and many elites viewed Christianity with hostility and remained suspicious. Constantine, however, saw an opportunity to bridge the hostility and stabilize the divided empire. His early years as emperor demonstrated a practical approach, as he walked the line of balancing traditional Roman beliefs and Christianity as it gained influence. All of this set the grounds for Constantine’s embrace of Christianity along with his revolutionary decision to issue the Edict of Milan, which would bring tolerance and legalization of Christianity. Constantine emerged to be a transformative leader and reshaped Roman history with his political strategy and personal convictions.²

Constantine’s ascent to power began in 306 CE, when he was proclaimed emperor by his troops after his father’s death. A skilled general and pragmatic leader, Constantine began his reign by focusing on consolidating his power amidst the chaos of an extremely divided empire. However, his relationship with Christianity would soon become a defining and leading aspect of his reign as emperor. 312 CE would be the turning point during his challenge to defeat Maxentius, his rival, at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. According to historians and historical accounts, Constantine experienced a vision the night before the battle. He allegedly saw a cross, the Chi Rho, in the sky that was accompanied by the words “In hoc signo vinces”– “In this sign you will conquer.” Having newfound inspiration from the divine vision, Constantine ordered his troops to paint their shields with the Chi Rho, a symbol to represent Christ. His victory reinforced his belief in the Christian God’s favor and began the profound shift in his religious outlook. ³

Following the victory, Constantine secured control over the Western empire, and being aware of the growing influence of Christianity among his subjects, he showed favor to Christians by restoring confiscated properties, granting privileges to clergymen, and supporting the construction of churches.⁴ His actions not only demonstrated his growing interest in Christianity but also set the groundwork for the broader policy of religious tolerance. The crucial step in formalizing Constantine’s vision of stability was his alliance with Licinius, the emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire. Although Licinius was not a devout Christian, he shared Constantine’s interest in maintaining stability and bringing unity within the empire. Together they began drafting the Edict of Milan in 313 CE, which was a groundbreaking document that granted freedoms of worship to all religions. The drafting of the edict was a calculated move that tried to unify a deeply divided empire, reduce religious tensions, and legitimize Constantine’s rule.⁵

As Constantine’s commitment to Christianity grew, so did the opposition from the traditional Roman elite who viewed the policies he laid out as a departure from Rome’s polytheistic traditions. The resistance from the elites added tensions to his journey, which underscored the risks of his religious shift. Constantine’s strategy was nonetheless a strategic and well-thought-out use of religion as a tool for unity that allowed him to navigate the challenges brought upon by these issues. The events leading up to the Edict of Milan illustrate not only Constantine’s growing personal convictions but also his ability to use religion as a way to achieve political stability in his empire. Although Constantine did not immediately convert to Christianity, his support for the faith continued to grow following the battle. His mother, Helena, a devout Christian, likely influenced his support and fascination with the religion. Constantine began to recognize the strategic advantages of endorsing Christianity. He recognized that the faith was no longer a small group but a movement that was rapidly growing and becoming widespread across the empire, with mounting influence.⁶ By standing with Christianity and aligning himself with their views, Constantine began his attempt to unify and stabilize the empire and his subjects. However, there was not an immediate acceptance, and many traditional Roman elites viewed the favor that Constantine showed as a betrayal of the polytheistic heritage, which began to heighten tensions with the ruling class.⁷

The pinnacle of Constantine’s religious and political journey came with the issuance of the Edict of Milan in 313 CE, when Constantine and Licinius, his co-emperor in the Eastern Roman Empire, took a massive and radical step by co-authoring the Edict. This proclamation formally granted religious tolerance and freedom throughout the whole empire, which ended the persecution of Christians and allowed them to worship freely, effectively ending centuries of persecution against Christians. This decision reflected Constantine’s conviction and how strategic he was to induce stabilization. This marked a turning point in religious policy in the Roman Empire, signaling the change and beginning of Christianity’s dominance in the religious aspect of Rome; however, the edict was not a simple declaration of tolerance; it was the product of intense political maneuvering and manipulation of personal conviction and the need to stabilize an empire that was fueled by religious division. The signing of his edict symbolized a moment of change when Constantine combined his personal beliefs with reasonable governance which would begin a new path for co-existence within the Roman Empire. The issuance of the Edict of Milan set the stage for Constantine’s later achievements, including his role as a patron of Christian institutions and the founding of Constantinople, a city that would become the epicenter for Christians and Christian culture for centuries.⁸

In a symbolic moment, Constantine and Licinius gathered to officially formalize the edict. The event emphasized the tensions and stakes at hand. For Constantine, the Edict of Milan was more than just a political tool; it was a direct reflection of his growing belief in Christianity, partially inspired by his vision at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. The Chi-Rho became an emblem of his authority and belief in divine favor. For his partner, Licinius the Edict was a sensible agreement to maintain unity across the empire’s eastern and western halves, even as his personal commitment and conviction to the Christian faith remained lukewarm. Together they proclaimed an end to religious persecution and decreed that each and every citizen, regardless of faith, would be able to worship freely. The Edict also restored any confiscated Christian properties and offered restitution to those who were victimized by persecution, signaling significant shifts in imperial society. Even with the groundbreaking nature of the Edict, it was not without its opposition or challenges. Traditional Roman elites, who were loyal to the polytheistic traditions of the empire, viewed the verdicts as a disgusting betrayal of the longstanding culture and religious heritage within Rome. Many feared that the promotion of Christianity would destabilize societal norms that had been around for centuries, along with weakening the empire’s identity. However, Constantine stood firm in his issue and used the Edict as a way to consolidate his power and redefine the relationship between state and religion. By being a champion of religious tolerance in the midst of embracing Christianity, Constantine aligned himself with a segment of a rapidly growing population, which ensured their loyalty and support for his changes. Ending the crisis of Christian persecution and paving the way for a Christianized empire with the Edict of Milan, not only led to the pinnacle of Constantine’s reign as emperor but also became a transformative event that redefined the entirety of the Roman Empire’s cultural and religious landscape for the centuries it remained.⁹

The immediate effects of the Edict of Milan were profound in both political and social aspects of Roman life. For Christians alike, the Edict represented a monumental and life-changing victory that finally came after centuries of persecution. Churches that were destroyed during previous reigns were rebuilt and properties that had been taken away were finally restored to their rightful owners.¹⁰

Clergymen of the Christian faith were given legal privileges that elevated their status within all of Roman society. The Edict also allowed for open practices and displays of the Christian faith, which led to a surge of interest, church memberships, and public devotion. The vocal and public support of Christianity by Constantine gave further legitimization to the faith and encouraged its growth, which hinted at the position it would hold in the future identity of Rome.¹¹

The actions of Constantine after the issuance of the Edict demonstrated his commitment to fostering the role of Christians and Christianity’s role in the empire. He started to fund the construction of significant basilicas of the religion, such as the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem and the Old St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome. This symbolized the integration of the Christian church and worship into the heart of Roman society. He also involved himself in theological matters and convened the Council of Nicaea in 325 CE, which addressed divisions within the Christian community and would establish a unified doctrine. His actions would outline his desire to unify the empire using Christianity as the force to do so.¹² 

Although there were many advancements, tensions still lingered between Christians and Roman polytheistic traditionalists. Many members of the Roman elite, including many influential senators and military leaders remained strong and unmoved supporters of the old gods. These elites viewed Constantine’s new policies as a direct betrayal of Rome’s heritage and a threat to the traditional empire of Rome. These tensions would occasionally erupt into local conflicts and highlighted the challenges of enforcing religious tolerance in a society that was still deeply divided by the beliefs engrained into the culture from early on. However, the political astuteness allowed him to navigate the obstacles of tolerance. By attempting to balance his support for Christianity with outward respect and understanding for the traditionalists of Rome, he maintained within the empire while gradually shifting to an identity of Christianity and tolerance.¹³

The overall impact of the Edict of Milan would extend far beyond Constantine’s reign. By formatting the foundation for religious freedom, the Edict would fundamentally alter the relationship between religion and state. Christianity which had once been a minority faith persecuted by the empire, grew into a massively dominant religion of the empire and became so influential that Emperor Theodosius I declared it the official state religion of the Empire in the year 380 CE. ¹⁴ The transformation of the empire into a Christian state, thanks to Constantine I shaped the trajectory of the future of European history, which would influence governance, culture, and even art for centuries until the present day. The Edict of Milan marked the new era that became inextricably linked for centuries to come in various empires and cultures, redefining the identity of Rome and future rulers leaving a lasting legacy. Constantine’s early reign exemplifies an extremely unique blend of personal belief and political rationale. His vision to unify through religious tolerance redefined the Roman Empire and left a legacy that would shape Western civilizations for generations to come.