King of Egypt, King of Persia, King of Macedonia… These are just some of the many titles that belonged to Alexander III of Macedon. The title he is most commonly referred to is Alexander the Great due to his reputation as a military leader and the fact that he is one of the most well known names in history. There are plenty of pieces of literature, paintings, sculptures, and descriptions that depict Alexander and tell of his battles and of his great empire. Still, despite all of our knowledge about Alexander, historians are still puzzled by the mystery surrounding his death. So the question stands, how did Alexander the Great die? I argue that Alexander died by assassination, or more specifically, by some form of poisoning.
Alexander was a great military commander and was even successfully able to execute the conquests of several large empires, including Persia and Egypt.1 It is said that his army never once lost a battle, and at the peak of his rule, the Persian Empire became one of the largest and most populated empires in history. People viewed him as a godlike being because of his military prowess and other great accomplishments as king. It seems that even he thought of himself as a god, as he would always wear sacred clothes mimicking the appearances of Artemis and Hermes.2 It is easy to see how being the king of such a large empire can give a man a bloated ego. It has even been documented that, among the many questions he would ask other philosophers, he would always ask, “How can a man become a god?” This god-complex of his most likely played a role in his actions, as well as to what led to his assassination. But before discussing possible motivations for him being a target of assassination, the two known accounts of his death must be examined.
There are only two known accounts of his death, but they differ greatly in the retelling of the king’s death. The first account can be found in the “Royal Diary,” a journal written on Alexander’s everyday life. It is presumed that it was written by Alexander’s chief secretary shortly after his death. The most supported and likely reason for this is that the diary was meant to silence the rumors that his death was a result of poison.3 The second source can be found in the pages of the Alexander Romance. The Alexander Romance is a book that contains mostly fictional collections of stories, but also contains some accurate information regarding Alexander’s death.4
Both sources place Alexander at a banquet and, in addition to having fallen ill, Alexander had planned to invade Arabia, which may have provided motive to kill him. This provides support for the theory of him being poisoned so that the invasion of Arabia could have been prevented. According to the account from the Alexander Romance, Alexander first experienced a stinging pain at the banquet and felt weak for the next few days, but had no symptoms of fever. On the other hand, the other account depicts almost the polar opposite of the Romance. It describes Alexander as first developing a small fever that slowly got worse and worse until his inevitable death.5 The differences make it hard to be able to narrow down the possible causes of death and also bring into question the reliability of these two accounts.
The possibility that Alexander was poisoned is fairly high, considering the symptoms he experienced, especially those described in the Alexander Romance, but these symptoms could also be attributed to a number of common diseases in Alexander’s time. Along with anyone who was against the Arabian invasion, there were a number of other people that could have wanted him dead. Another motivation could be Alexander’s Exile Decree. This was Alexander’s plan to allow the people exiled from Greek cities to return to their homes.6 It was a complex issue at the time and it is easy to see why people would oppose this and even possibly go as far as to assassinate Alexander.
With so many people against the king’s actions and so many possible motivations for assassination, it is hard to argue that no one was responsible for his death. The two accounts of his symptoms prior to death are the only things available to us, along with a few more records and accounts that are not as detailed or reliable. There are skeptics that believe these two accounts also cannot be trusted because they are written by people who were not in favor with Alexander.7 The article looks into whether or not Alexander’s death was due to his use of consuming alcohol. The article concludes that the authors of the accounts most likely wanted it to seem as though that was the case so as not to draw suspicion and to go against the notion that he may have been assassinated.
And so, given all the known facts and sources, it is reasonable to conclude that Alexander the Great died due to poisoning. He was going to die at the hands of his men sooner or later given the amount of people and subjects he ruled over and he was bound to make enemies. Unfortunately, his dreams of conquest came to an abrupt end, following him to his grave. Still, Alexander remains one of the greatest conquerors in history, having conquered a multitude of other empires and accumulating land and wealth for his own empire.
- Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia, 2015, s.v. “Alexander the Great,” by Reynolds G. Clark. ↵
- Ian Worthington, Alexander the Great: Man and God (Hoboken: Routledge, 2014), 272. ↵
- Edward M. Anson, Alexander the Great: Themes and Issues (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2013), 181-183. ↵
- Leo J. Schep et al., “Was the Death of Alexander the Great due to Poisoning? Was It Veratrum Album?,” Clinical Toxicology, no. 1 (January 2014): 73. ↵
- Leo J. Schep et al., “Was the Death of Alexander the Great due to Poisoning? Was It Veratrum Album?,” Clinical Toxicology, no. 1 (January 2014): 74. ↵
- Ian Worthington, Alexander the Great: Man and God (Hoboken: Routledge, 2014),263. ↵
- J. A. Liappas et al., “Alexander the Great’s Relationship with Alcohol,” Addiction 98, no. 5 (May 2003): 566. ↵
46 comments
Robert Miller
I didn’t know there were two different accounts of how Alexander the Great died. I remember reading that he died after having pain at a banquet without a fever, but I didn’t know there is also an account that there was a fever that eventually led to his death. In this article, it is mentioned that this disparity makes the reliability of both accounts questionable. This article was very well written and I am glad I was able to read more about Alexander the Great.
Carlos Hinojosa
I still consider it a tragedy that Alexander died so young. Imagine how much more he could have accomplished before he died. First, his empire would have been way more stable compared to what we saw shortly after his death. Second, he most likely would have gone to war again probably not long after his last battle. So, the world itself probably would have looked complete different. Was he the greatest ruler? no but be certain he definitely was one of the greatest military leaders of all time.
Daniel Matheu Baldor
Reading about Alexander the Great is always very interesting. Alexander was probably the best conqueror not only from his time, but also from every times. The way he defeated Dario’s army with many less soldiers, how he reached the Indus River…, and everything in less than 15 years because he was murdered; how? We don’t know yet for sure; but basing on what I have read and watched, I would bet that he died due to poisoning.
Samuel Vega
I have studied about Alexander the Great and his military expertise. I have also looked at the relationship that he had with his father, King Philip II of Macedonia; but I have not studied the causes leading to his death. I agree with the author that the death of Alexander remains a mystery. There seems to be many people who wanted the King dead. One attempt on his life was by four of his younger servants. The plot to kill him was foiled and Alexander escaped death that particular night. This article gives two detailed potential explanations for the King’s death. We will never know the true cause.
Stephanie Cerda
I learned about Alexander the Great and my history classes. It’s interesting to hear the theories on how he died since most of the time, people just say his ruling ended and move on to the next events. His legacy, even after his death remains. Alexander may not have become a god, like he wanted to, but he was still preserved. That’s ultimately what people want when they think about it. They want to be remembered. Alexander’s actions while he ruled were what made him great.
Alicia Guzman
Wow, the life and legacy of Alexander the Great were truly great. It is really interesting how the details of his death are not known for sure – especially for someone who is so great. I really like how this article addresses the two most reliable possibilities of how Alexander the Great died – because I had no idea. I wonder what kind of poison led to the demise of this leader. Great article.
Cameron Lopez
I read of Alexander the great including his death which is interesting to read about. His death was out of no where. Everyone portrayed him as some kind of God and its hard to believe that he had to die just like every other human will. At the end of the day he was still just a human no matter how anyone saw him if it was a stronger man, or God he was just a human. I’m assuming everyone expected him to live forever or if he was to die he would of died in some epic battle with some creature or maybe he sacrificed himself.
Uzziyah Cohen
Apotheosis –– could this really have been Alexander the great’s endeavor! A God complex seems to be extremely damning to almost any man; however as a leader, one must understand that it would automatically lead to complete failure. Aside from his God complex, Alexander the great was remarkably accomplished, as both a ruler and as a warrior. This article did an excellent job in explaining the contrast between the two sources that relate to the death of Alexander the great. I am actually looking forward to reading more about “the Royal diary.” Although he may not have become a god, Alexander the great will always be an icon in history.
Noah Wesolowski
In my history lessons the teachers never really went over Alexander the Great, they mentioned him and talked about a few of his achievements but never really went into what he did. Before reading this I did not know that his conquest led him all the way to egypt and persia. It seems that he would have continued his dream of conquering more land if not for his quick death.
Eric Ortega Rodriguez
I have studied Alexander the Great in the past, but I never knew the reasons behind his death. As I read this article, the two assumptions that were made seem very much possible especially because Alexander had many enemies and many of which would want to see him gone. Alexander had such capability of becoming a great emperor if it was not for his passing, which is probably another reason why so many individuals were envious of him.