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March 2, 2017

Martin Luther: Rebel or Reformer?

In 1517, when the 95 Theses were first posted, Martin Luther had no intention of breaking from the Roman Catholic Church. Rather, he sought to reform the Church’s view on indulgences, believing that no one could buy their way into heaven. Believing that his view was deeply rooted in Scripture, he was confident that Church scholars would agree with him. Instead, the Church hierarchy responded by accusing Luther of heresy, wanting to quell any question of their authority. As a result, what was initially an effort to reform the Catholic faith eventually transformed into a major schism in Christianity itself.

Portrait of Martin Luther by Lucas Cranach the Elder | Courtesy of the British Museum

Prior to sparking the Protestant movement, Martin Luther was an Augustinian monk teaching at the University of Wittenberg in Germany. In 1517, Pope Leo X sanctioned indulgences to be sold to raise money for the construction of St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome. An indulgence consisted of money given to the Church in exchange for less time in purgatory, which was conceived as a theological waiting room where imperfect souls were purified after death before they enter heaven. People essentially believed that this meant they could buy a way into heaven for themselves and their loved ones.1 As a result of the Pope’s decree, a Dominican monk, Johann Tetzel, began preaching in favor of these indulgences in the towns of Jüterbog and Zerbst near the university.2 Luther responded to this by writing to the archbishop, admonishing him by asserting that simply paying money to the Church does not purify the soul.

When his protestations went unanswered, Luther posted his 95 Theses. The theses were arguments opposing the manner in which indulgences were being sold.3 Most of the theses did not contradict Catholic doctrine, so it is widely believed that Luther wrote them to spark a theological academic debate. The theses, originally written in Latin, were translated into German and put into wide circulation; this caught the attention of Rome. Fearing that the funding for St. Peter’s Basilica was under threat, Leo ordered Luther to be investigated. In response, Luther sought the support of a Germanic prince, Frederick the Wise. Frederick granted Luther support and protection, insisting that the investigation take place in Germany.4 In response, Leo asked the papal legate in Augsburg, Cardinal Cajetan, to investigate Luther. Brought before Cajetan, Luther was asked to renounce his theses and recant his accusations against the Church. Luther refused, but agreed to stop commenting on indulgences and listen to the Church. Although this was not Cajetan’s desired result, Frederick allowed Luther to return to Wittenberg.5

The Augustinian Cloister at Wittenberg | Courtesy of the British Museum

The following year, 1519, Luther agreed to debate the theologian Johann Eck. Eck instigated the debate by comparing Luther’s positions to Jan Hus, a well-known heretic that had been excommunicated and executed a hundred years earlier. This forced Luther to declare that the Church had been wrong to condemn Hus, opening himself to charges of heresy.6 Eck had given the pope the opportunity to bring excommunication charges against Luther. However, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, not wanting to upset Frederick the Wise, forced the pope to subject Luther to a hearing at the Diet of Worms. At this time, Luther’s cause was gaining popularity among Germans. The emperor could not afford to upset the German prince, needing his support to fight an ongoing war with France and keep the Ottoman Empire from Austrian lands.7

During the trial, Luther was led into a room where his accusers had piled his works on a table, read the titles aloud, and asked if these books belonged to Luther. Luther replied that the books belonged to him. He was then asked to renounce them. Luther then asked for time to consider. When he returned the next day he refused to reject anything, saying that unless he was disproved by Scripture, he was bound by his conscience to defend his work.8 He felt that he was strongly supported by the Bible. However, Church officials saw this as a rejection of their authority rather than an appeal to Scripture. Charles V, though angered, could do nothing to condemn Luther as long as he remained at war. Instead, he planned to send Luther back to Wittenberg marked as a heretic.9 However, before he reached the university, Frederick the Wise secretly had Luther taken to Wartburg Castle.10

Throughout the next few years, Luther continued to defend his works. One of his biggest achievement during this time was the translation of the Bible from Latin into German. Still, he was forced to remain hidden. Charles V, after securing an alliance with the pope in the war against France, no longer needed ties with Frederick the Wise. This allowed the papal bull, proclaiming Luther’s excommunication, to be issued, adding a decree which ordered that no one give Luther refuge.11 It was ultimately his refusal to retract his works that prevented Luther from reforming the Church. Pope Leo X, Charles V, and other high Church officials perceived Luther’s passion for reform as a challenge to authority. In contrast, Luther believed that his works were strongly supported in Scripture. The miscommunication and stubbornness of both parties ultimately led to a major schism within Christianity. When the Church labeled him a heretic, Luther had no choice but to begin his own branch of Christianity, Lutheranism, so that he could continue to practice the faith to which he had dedicated his life.  

  1. Renaissance and Reformation Reference Library, July 2002, s.v. “Martin Luther: Founder of Lutheranism” edited by Julie L. Carnegie.
  2. New Catholic Encyclopedia, September 2003, s.v. “Luther, Martin” by Bill Ditewig.
  3. Funk and Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia, 2016, s.v. “Luther, Martin”
  4. Renaissance and Reformation Reference Library, July 2002, s.v. “Martin Luther: Founder of Lutheranism” edited by Julie L. Carnegie.
  5. New Catholic Encyclopedia, September 2003, s.v. “Luther, Martin” by Bill Ditewig.
  6. Renaissance and Reformation Reference Library, July 2002, s.v. “Martin Luther: Founder of Lutheranism” edited by Julie L. Carnegie.
  7. Renaissance and Reformation Reference Library, July 2002, s.v. “Martin Luther: Founder of Lutheranism” edited by Julie L. Carnegie.
  8. Encyclopedia of World Biography, December 2004, s.v. “Martin Luther,” by Andrea Henderson.
  9. Julius Koestlin, Life of Luther (Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, 2006), 105-116.
  10. Funk and Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia, 2016, s.v. “Luther, Martin”
  11. Julius Koestlin, Life of Luther (Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, 2006), 105-116.

Tags from the story

Johann Tetzel

Martin Luther

Ninety-Five Theses

Pope Leo X

Recent Comments

Genesis Moro Otero

Martin Luther was a truly a fearless rebel monk. He was so courageous to stay to his beliefs even when the Church deemed him a rebel or heretic. He created and posted those 95 theses, because he believed that the Church selling indulgences was a despicable act going against Scripture. He knew that selling and buying those indulgences wouldn’t purify anyone’s souls.

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24/04/2020

7:48 am

Monserrat Garcia

Thanks to this article and my World History course I got to learn about Martin Luther more in debt. I do believe Martin Luther was a revolutionary and a leader which is very admiring considering the situation he was in. If his story were more dispersed and told we would have more people speaking their minds. It is fascinating to see the change of atmosphere throughout time and see how people reacted to revolutionaries like Luther….

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30/01/2021

7:48 am

Soleil Armijo

I believe the Luther was a brave man to go against the church outright, and stick to his work when faced with excommunication. It shows a strong moral stance and set a precedence for others to begin to question the supreme power the Church had accumulated during this time period. He was challenged and brought in a new of thinking that others believed and sparked a questioning of the Church’s intentions.

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01/02/2021

7:48 am

Paul Garza

This article is very informative on a big turning point for religion across Europe. I really like that this article points out the power dynamics between the germanic prince and the emperor regarding the wars. Prior to reading this article I always thought Martin Luther was excommunicated due to pure heresy and being against the Catholic Church however, this article informs us that his research was aligned with Catholic teachings. This article really shows that Martin Luther was considered a heretic due to important church figures and their authority being threatened. This is a well written article provides more than one side to the story but stands its ground with facts from both sides.

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01/02/2021

7:48 am

Brittney Carden

Martin Luther was an absolutely brave soul. To go against the church at the height of their power, when no one dared to question them or their ways, must’ve been astonishing to see and hear at the time. I can’t understand how Christians believed that because they donated or gave money to the church they were guaranteed a spot in heaven. Did I miss that part in the Bible? Very well-written and precise article.

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03/02/2021

7:48 am

Seth Roen

Great Article about Luther; imagine beginning accused of being a heretic from the Church you are trying to help. Luther was a brave man for standing up and saying what he thought was wrong about the Church’s practices, such as indulgence. He was also a lucky man for being both a Church member and educated compared to Jan Hus. Able to debate his claim and also having friends in high places. Again great article, and keep it up.

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04/02/2021

7:48 am

Alaina De Leon

Martin Luther throughout his life was a man who stuck to his beliefs when odds were against him, an entire church. By not denying his beliefs and posting his Theses onto the church doors, he was seen as a man of irrationality and error. Even after his entire journey he was still viewed as a heretic and was able to find himself and stand for what he believed in, ending with the creation of Lutherism.

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08/02/2021

7:48 am

Daniel Gimena

As a German, I really enjoyed reading this article about the story of what we know today as Germany. Martin Luther is one of the most famous figures of the country, and I found interesting the way the author contextualizes the story of Martin Luther trying to explain that his goal from the beginning was not to start a revolution in Europe, but rather reform the Church’s system. As it has happened many times in human history; what we remember today is not how things or people were, but rather the most dramatic scenes of those events.

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25/01/2022

7:48 am

Carlos Hinojosa

Martin Luthor will probably always be viewed as someone on the right for his stance against the church. Which I still find weird that it took so long for the Catholic Church to admit they were wrong but eventually they did. I wonder how the Church would react today if another reform would be proposed. Depending on the seriousness of the reform I have a feeling they would ignore it. Anyway, a very well-made article good job.

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01/02/2022

7:48 am

Paula Ferradas Hiraoka

Even if I already covered this topic not only in high school, but also in college, it’s impressive how a person can support their ideas until the end. In this case, I’m amazed of how Martin Luther stood up for himself and his idea he was defending. But also, he was able to write 95 theses. But overall, an amazing article and good construction of the Chicago style endnotes.

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01/02/2022

7:48 am

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